Posts Tagged ‘neuropsychologists’

Stress: Neurobiology and Neuroendocrinology

Stress: Neurobiology and Neuroendocrinology

Edited by Marvin R. Brown, George F. Koob, and Catherine Rivier

New York, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1991. 703 pp.

Stress: Neurobiology and Neuroendocrinology is an ambitious attempt to review the latest work in stress research to, state the editors, stimulate “… the development of innovative methods … for further studies in stress biology.” The work presents a great deal of data on stress biology, endocrinology, and physiology, and is for the most part a well-written and fully referenced contribution to the field of stress research.

The book, a collection of 29 reviews by biomedical faculty at American institutions, is organized into four main sections: (1) a general overview regarding issues defining and measuring stress; (2) basic central nervous system (CNS) and endocrine biology during stress; (3) discussions of pathophysiology resulting from stress, such as ischemia, gastric ulcers, immune dysfunctions, and psychiatric disorders; and (4) stress management strategies with explanations of how they may work.

Section three, which concerns itself with stress pathophysiology, is perhaps the book’s strongest section. Here the authors effectively demonstrate links between stressful events and eventual disease processes and provide critical reviews of their fields. For example, Chapter 3 tackles the role of mental stress in causing myocardial ischemia. The authors persuasively argue for ischemia as the best measurement of cardiac pathology vis-a-vis stress, and reproduce studies of ischemia during mental stress over an array of diagnostic modalities (technetium, echocardiography, PET). They further proceed to explain the possible endothelial pathophysiology in response to acetylcholine, resulting in coronary vasoconstriction and subsequent ischemia. In their summary, the authors lucidly delineate avenues of further research.

Chapter 27 reviews stress-induced immune dysfunction in humans. In this chapter, the author ably points out the gap in current research: although studies exist which show an association between psychological stress and immune changes, and psychological stress and disease, there exists a dearth of studies to demonstrate a clear association among all three. He questions the current assumption of the role of endogenous cortisol in immunosuppression by showing studies in which elevated cortisol during stressful events did not always result in depressed natural killer cell activity. Laudably, the author does not leave the reader to wonder about other mechanisms of immune suppression and presents studies which demonstrate that the autonomic nervous system may be ultimately responsible.

The book’s major missed opportunity is a cohesive chapter which connects the disparate discussions of neurobiology and pathophysiology. Chapter 2, the closest stab at this goal, is clearly written, yet digresses into dozens of areas. Instead, a lucid summary of the basic science chapters which follow, demonstrating stress as an insult to the CNS and the endocrine system, which filters down to other organ systems, would have been highly valuable. Aside from suggestive studies, however, this chapter does not include sufficient evidence to support such a theory. Chapter 29 on “Stress Technology Medicine,” another chapter which could demonstrate how various systems interact with one another, spends much of its force explaining the theory of autonomic rhythms and laterality (supported by a collection of one-subject experiments). It leaves the reader disappointed, stating that “the credibility of these sophisticated tools” (fascinating yogi relaxation techniques combining breathing and body position) “comes best through their application” without showing any studies demonstrating stress-reducing effects of these relaxation techniques.

In summary, this book is, for the most part, a well-organized contribution to the field of stress research in its cataloging of the latest findings in one accessible work. Unarguably, much of this information is not easily obtained in the standard medical and scientific texts. This volume can be especially helpful to investigators, working with one particular area of stress biology and physiology, who wish to obtain rapid knowledge of other related fields. It may also be of use to physicians and to health personnel who have a strong desire to grasp the complex science underlying stress and its influence on disease. In many ways, such a work may represent one praiseworthy attempt to gather together the current knowledge of mind’s effects and relate it to disparate organ dysfunctions. Yet it is perhaps too much to ask this work to make durable connections between the different research areas and to allow the reader “a look beyond the trees.” More to the point, that flaw may be a reflection on this still unmapped and intertwined field of neurobiology and pathophysiology, and further editions on the subject will no doubt strive to achieve just such a goal.

Stress, the Aging Brain, and the Mechanisms of Neuron Death

Stress, the Aging Brain, and the Mechanisms of Neuron Death

Robert M. Sapolsky

Cambridge, M., The MIT Press, 1992.429 pp

Does stress kill brain cells, and if so, how? In Stress, The Aging Brain, and Mechanisms of Neuronal Death, Dr. Robert Sapolsky presents data supporting the disturbing notion that psychological stresses may be associated with chemical processes in the brain that subject neurons to toxic processes. Dr. Sapolsky’s research, which has taken him from the African veldt to the neurobiology laboratory, provides a framework to orient readers to this interesting review.

In a well-crafted presentation, Dr. Sapolsky integrates his highly original research with related topics of great interest to neuroscientists, neurologists and psychiatrists. He takes care to review hot issues, such as the impact of glucocorticoids on brain function, the role of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in learning and neurotoxicity, and the function of nitric oxide as a mediator of NMDA receptor function. In a particularly creative step, Dr. Sapolsky bridges the traditional neuropharmacologic focus on neuro-modulation and the study of energy regulation within neurons during neuromodulation. He presents evidence to support the hypothesis that elevated glucocorticoid levels associated with stress deplete neuronal energy, making them less capable of fending off the toxic effects of inotropic excitatory amino acid receptor stimulation and its associated increase in calcium influx.

As the product of four years of work and “everything (he) knows as of January 10, 1992,” this book contains a prodigious amount of information presented in a thoughtful and user-friendly fashion. It is evident that Dr. Sapolsky has considered challenges facing the reader. Each chapter begins with a review of the book to that point and finishes with a summary of concepts presented within the chapter. These efforts make the text more accessible and enhance its utility as a reference source. In a scientific world dominated by least publishable units and multi-authored texts, Dr. Sapolsky succeeds in developing his views on stress and neurotoxicity in depth with an informal and somewhat socratic style. This stylistic approach makes the large body of information presented more engaging to the reader.

Dr. Sapolsky acknowledges the limitations of his book, occasionally, as they appear in the text. He reviews rapidly evolving fields of research. As a result, significant developments have already occurred in some areas of study reviewed in this book. Also, clinical perspectives on the type of stresses that push neurons “to the brink” could be developed further. The notion that routine social stresses might increase neuronal loss during a seizure is less formidable than the hypothesis that these stresses are neurotoxic in the absence of a medical crisis. One might also have appreciated a more thorough discussion of psychological trauma and its aftermath.

Overall, this is a very good book for researchers in many areas of clinical and basic neurosciences. It serves as a good entry point for researchers and clinicians interested in the areas of stress, neuroactive corticosteroids, excitatory amino acids, and neurotoxicity. Researchers well-versed in these areas may benefit from Dr. Sapolsky’s novel evaluations of a broad range of data and the numerous and intriguing hypotheses presented.

Comparative Vertebrate Neuroanatomy

Comparative Vertebrate Neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation

Ann B. Butler and William Hodos

New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996. 552 pp.

Comparative Vertebrate Neuroanatomy is a unique book in that it provides very up-to-date neuroanatomy from a comparative perspective and presents it for an uninitiated audience. The book stresses a common theme of anatomy, the relationship between structure and function, and through the comparative window, offers an interesting view of the eyolution of the vertebrate nervous system. The book is intended primarily for graduate students and advanced undergraduate students in the neurosciences, although fans of evolutionary biology will also find it accessible. Knowledge of undergraduate-level biology is assumed, but no prior knowledge of neuroscience or neuroanatomy is required. The authors stress that the prime objective of the book is to present an introductory treatment of neuroanatomy which can be used as preparation for subsequent advanced topics in neuroanatomy and the neurosciences. Thus, this book falls short for the serious neuroanatomists, or those seeking an all-encompassing reference text. The authors succeed in presenting the material in a basic enough fashion to be readable by just about everyone with some biological background, while also providing enough breadth and depth to serve as a springboard to more in-depth treatment of the topics presented in advanced neuroscience courses. Furthermore, a full four chapters are devoted to the comparative evolution, derivation, and organization of the cranial nerves, and therefore may be of value to students interested in neurology,

The book is organized into six major sections, the first being an introduction to the evolution and organization of the central nervous system, and subsequent sections providing more detailed treatment of the various regions of the brain from the spinal chord and hindbrain, to the forebrain. A concluding chapter provides synthesis from an evolutionary standpoint. The text is very easy to read and understand, with the use of bold type highlighting important concepts or anatomy which may be found in the well-organized index. A discussion of relevant embryology is included where deemed appropriate, and this helps to clarify the derivation and evolution of the anatomy. Also, certain techniques are described briefly to show how the anatomy was studied and traced. The text is replete with easy to follow figures and tables, and this allows a visual comparison of the anatomy across species. For those intrigued by the topics and who may want more, at the end of every chapter there are references to textbooks cited for “Further Reading,” as well as references to the original literature cited as “Additional Reading.” The book also provides very useful appendices, such as a list of anatomical, terms with their roots and origins, diagrams describing anatomical directional terms, and a useful but somewhat limited glossary.

In summary, this would make an excellent book for the uninitiated student interested in learning neuroanatomy. The material is clearly presented, and the treatment is thorough enough to serve as a strong foundation for the study of more advanced topics. The evolutionary perspective enhances understanding of the anatomy, and also provides interesting insights.

Elements of Molecular Neurobiology

Elements of Molecular Neurobiology, Second Edition

C.U.M. Smith

New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1996. 640 pp.

Elements of Molecular Neurobiology, Second Edition is one of the most readable and comprehensive introductions to molecular neuroscience available. Recent advances in the neurosciences, particularly in molecular neuroscience, in the six years since the first edition of this book was published, make this edition timely and useful. Large sections of the text have been rewritten to include current approaches, such as “gene-knockout mice,” and recent advances such as ion channel research. New findings indevelopmental neurobiology have been included an entirely new chapter on “Epigenetics of the brain.” Several new illustrations supplement, either schematically or pictorially, the already lucid descriptions found in the text.

Aside from these revisions, the overall structure of the book remains the same as in the first edition. After an introductory chapter on-the nervous system, the next few chapters clearly describe basic concepts in general molecular biology needed throughout the remainder of the book. Appropriate references are made to the application of the molecular biology to the neurosciences, even in these early chapters, to help maintain the focus of the book. In this way the book is a self-contained unit, serving as a very valuable tool to the student wishing to learn neurobiology from the molecular perspective, without being forced to refer to another text on molecular biology. Molecular biological or neurobiological “tidbits” are placed into boxes through the text, allowing the interested student to read further. The book then goes on to discuss receptors, ion channels, the action potential and neurotransmitters in a very conceptual and easy-to-follow manner. The last chapters integrate the material on an organismal level through discussion of memory and basic neuropathology (in which I was impressed to find a section on prion diseases). In fact, throughout the text, neurological correlates are provided which serve to “bring back home” a major purpose of studying molecular neurobiology.

There is enough depth in the book to satisfy the introductory reader, but in the event that more information is desired, a complete bibliography is provided in the back, which is broken down by chapter and topic. In addition, useful appendices, a glossary, and an organized index allow easy referencing. This book would be ideal for an undergraduate student beginning to study neuroscience, the neuroscience student wanting a treatment of molecular biology as applied to the nervous system or for the student with a firm grounding in molecular biology, but who would like an introduction to molecular neurobiology. The book’s greatest value may be to this latter group. For those readers who are fairly comfortable with molecular biology, but who feel that the field of neuroscience is whirling by and would like a tether to help reel it in, this book provides a thorough yet accessible introduction.

Hughlings Jackson on Psychiatry

Kenneth Dewhurst

Oxford, Sanford Publications, 1982. pp. xi + 169

The clinical researches in neurology of John Hughlings Jackson (1834 –  1911) are well known, but his contributions to the field of psychiatry are not; nevertheless, they are considerable, as Kenneth Dewhurst notes in this fine small book. Jackson’s education at the medical school at York provided him with more experience in the field of psychiatry than most of his contemporary medical students. This was made possible by two exceptional professors on the faculty, Daniel Hack Tuke and Thomas Laycock, both of whom became leaders of British psychiatry during their era. Tuke probably had a greater impact on the clinical side while Laycock’s studies on brain reflexology and on the mind-brain problem had an enduring influence on neurophysiology.

Jackson also attended the St. Bartholomew Hospital Medical School in London for a year. He settled in London finally in 1859, where he spent the rest of his life in private practice and was associated with the London Hospital and the National Hospital for the Paralyzed and Epileptic. During his career, he wrote well over 300 articles using a careful observational and philosophical approach, but never put his findings and thoughts together in a coordinated whole in spite of the urgings of his professional friends. Nevertheless, he was “acclaimed as the greatest British scientific clinician of the 19th century.”

Jackson’s greatest contribution to the understanding of psychiatric issues arose from his careful studies of epilepsy and its phenomena. As he slowly collected material from 1866 on, he became interested in selected patients who experienced odors undetectable to others present (a form of olfactory hallucination). These subjects also revealed episodes of losses of consciousness, automatic movements and thoughts, and the appearance of certain dream-like states. Jackson also explored the amnesia that was associated with these states and finally named them “uncinate fits.” Over the years the terminology changed to epileptic equivalents, psychomotor epilepsy, and currently to temporal lobe epilepsy. Dewhurst also discusses a famous case of Jackson’s known as “Quaerens or Dr. Z.”, who has recently been identified by the studies of D. C. Taylor and S. M. Marsh as Dr. Arthur Thomas Myers, a distinguished sportsman and physician whose major contribution to medical history was his careful reportage of his own case, albeit anonymously. He became a patient of Jackson’s who published Myers’ case and included Myers’ autobiographical study. Both in his own right and through the efforts of his brother, Frederick W. H. Myers, Arthur contributed to the movement for the study of parapsychological phenomena and those of the subconscious. Arthur wrote articles on both hypnotism and telepathy. It was his brother Frederick, however, who helped to found the Society for Psychical Research and wrote extensively on subliminal matters. Both went to LeHavre, France, in 1886 to watch a then unknown professor of philosophy named Pierre Janet do experiments on hypnosis at a distance.

Arthur died in January 1894 from an overdose of chloral hydrate. His illness plus his medical focus thereup had made possible a greater clinical understanding of temporal lobe epilepsy. Exploration of the connections of the temporal lobes to psychiatry has experienced a resurgence during the past two decades. That religious and parapsychological behavior could be connected to this area of the brain was pointed out in a 1970 article by Drs. Dewhurst and Beard. They reported six cases of epilepsy with investigative evidence suggesting a temporal lobe focus. All of these patients reported experiences of religious conversion. Approaching the question from the other side, the authors also found support for their thesis from the history of conversions in a number of saints and religious figures who also had a history of convulsive-like episodes. A more recent study brought further confirmation to this view as well as demonstrating a high incident of dissociation and multiple personality in these patients.

Other topics explored by Dewhurst in Jackson’s writings are: the mind-body problem, consciousness, delirium, coma, psychosis, hysteria, dreams, Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome, obsessions, jokes, etc. Dewhurst concludes his book with a two-chapter review of Jackson’s impact on continental psychiatry as well as on British and North American psychiatry. Among the familiar names that emerge are: Freud, Pick, Charcot, Ribot, Henri Ey, S. Weir Mitchell, J. J. Putnam, Adolf Meyer, and Bernard Sachs.

We are highly indebted to Dr. Dewhurst for surveying John Hughlings Jackson’s voluminous writings and culling those comments of psychiatric import and placing them in their historical context. An excellent index makes the various topics easily accessible. Dewhurst has continued to make valuable contributions to the history of medicine. His range is impressive. He is famous for his 17th century book-length studies on Sydenham, Willis, and Locke. He recently wrote a book on Fredrich Schiller (19th century), and he now has an excellent book on Jackson.

John Hughlings Jackson: Father of English Neurology

John Hughlings Jackson: Father of English Neurology

Critchley M, Critchley EA

New York: Oxford University Press; 1998. 228 pp

ISBN 0-19512-339-5 (hard cover)

John Hughlings Jackson was an independent-minded, creative thinker who has enjoyed legendary status. The Critchleys’ new biography tells us that it was said that Jackson’s guess was worth the facts of 10 men. The authors of this biography have provided an exhaustive, although excruciatingly detailed, description of Jackson’s life (there are 2 pages on his use or non-use of a hyphen between Hughlings and Jackson), professional work and legacy. Embodied within the volume is much information relevant to the golden age of neurology — the latter half of the 19th century — and the key individuals who developed neurology, especially in the United Kingdom, including the establishment of the National Hospital and the journal Brain. The Critchleys profess to decry hagiolatry, but begin the book with the following statement “He possessed the rare combination of characteristics that ’sets the man among the little band of whom are Aristotle and Newton and Darwin.’” The book is uneven, with obsessive detailing of the Jackson family tree and repetition of Jackson’s personal characteristics.

Nevertheless, the topic is one of fascination, the material scrupulously researched, and the book an explanation to a modern audience of what it was about Jackson that enraptured both contemporary and subsequent generations of those thinking about the nervous system.

Jacksonian concepts of the central nervous system need both an explanation and a guidebook. A critic once described Jackson’s writing as resembling the “love of God in that it surpasseth all understanding.” Those who wish to read Jackson in the original might be daunted by the following assessment by Sir George Savage, “His whole frame of mind was so carefully exacting that he scarcely ever dares to make a definite statement without qualifying it in some way; so that in studying his writings one meets endless footnotes and parentheses which are somewhat confusing.” The Critchleys make a reasonable effort in this volume, but picking Jackson’s key observations is not easy. We are told many times more often the importance of the observations than what they actually were. Certainly Jackson’s view of the brain comprised both holistic and compartmentalized notions. His successive levels of integration of motor functions coexisted with views contrary-minded to the passion for discrete localization that characterized his time. As the Critchleys state, the second half of the 19th century was a period of neurological fervour, when clinical-pathologic correlation was winning easy prizes. This work was descriptive in character, not reflective. They further point out that Jackson’s ideas, especially on aphasia, were temporarily overshadowed by those who conducted brief clinical studies highlighting the obvious. It is true that Jackson owed his principal contributions to germs of ideas derived from Herbert Spencer’s concept of “dissolution.” Nevertheless, one can’t help but feel affection for the man the Critchleys describe — his single-mindedness and recognition of the complexities of central nervous organization in the human brain. One feels a similar affection for his biographers, who have toiled tirelessly — in Mac-donald Critchley’s case, well into his 10th decade — to produce this work.

I have always thought that Critchley has been underrated by his countrymen. He did not appear to have been humble, and his writings redefine pedantry, but he was the longest surviving member of the era that overlapped Jackson’s final years and was also an exhaustive scholar. In the book, Critchley describes Jackson’s interaction with a colleague who had reviewed a piece of work so severely that the author was threatening violence. The reviewer protested to Jackson that the author’s anger was not justified, for he had only reviewed the book, not the man. “That is very true,” said Jackson. “You did not shoot at the man; you shot only at his coat but you must remember that it was on his back.” I am disinclined to shoot at the coat. There are shortcomings in this book to be sure, but there is also much fine biography.

Mind and Brain Sciences in the 21st Century

Mind and Brain Sciences in the 21st Century

Robert L. Solso, editor

Cambridge (MA): The MIT Press; 1999. 354 pp. with index

ISBN 0-262-69223-6 (paper)

In this book 18 prominent writers in the field of neuropsychology and neuroscience review recent progress and make prognostications about where the field is going in the 21st century. The topics range from the serious to the whimsical, but all are challenging, yet lucid, and well written. Carl Sagan is a cosmologist and science author of international reputation, and his wife, Ann Druyan, is an author, lecturer and television producer. All the others are leaders in psychological and neurobiological research. The essays are grouped into 4 sections.

The first section deals with consciousness and the 21st century. In cognitive psychology, consciousness has been a central topic, yet until the last decade, the subject was avoided by most researchers, largely because many believed that it was impossible to study one’s own subjective experience in an objective way. Bernard Baars takes a look at this and describes a world of sentient, self-knowing beings; he hopes humans will achieve this in the next century. Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan challenge the traditional notion that humans are the only animals with true consciousness. They suggest that there is no qualitative discontinuity between the cognitive processes of a human and his pet dog. Richard Thompson explores the concept of “mind” as separate from “brain” (”the Ghost in the machine”). As a behaviourist, he feels that in the 21st century we will come to understand “mind” as the behavioural expression of brain function — nothing more. Endel Tulving, with tongue-in-cheek, describes an incident in which a being from 2096 is sent back (time machine?) to help him with his prognostications, and this being tells him about many new terms and concepts of the future. Tulving cleverly lampoons our use of acronyms and our propensity to think we understand something because we have given it a name.

In the second section, “Brain and mind in the 21st century,” 5 essays deal with the separation between cognitive psychology, largely influenced by behaviourism, and cognitive neuroscience, focussing on brain structure and function. Edward Smith postulates that neuroimaging of the normal brain will bring these 2 approaches together. Michael Posner and Daniel Levitin review the impact of neuroimaging on our understanding of how the brain works. Alan Gevins postulates a world in which everyone might be plugged into a brain scanner much as a mechanic plugs your car into a diagnostic computer. Karl Pribram discusses structures of memory and conscious learning, and Michael Gazzaniga asserts that whatever your brain does, its purpose is sex.

In recent years, psychology has moved away from behaviourism and is now trying to pry open Skinner’s Black Box. In the section “Psychology (memory, theory, and cognition) in the 21st century,” 6 well-known writers try their hand at predicting where psychology will go next. Henry Roediger HI, in a thoughtful essay, reviews the accuracy of past predictions (almost zero) and makes 11 “testable predictions” for the next 25 years. Gay Snodgrass looks back from 2050 and suggests a world of “memory trainers.” Jerome Kagan looks at current concepts in psychology and suggests that specific knowledge will change many and render the rest obsolete, with inevitable consequences for the classification systems. George Sperling discusses the role of theories in advancing knowledge. Neil Miller suggests that the future, as the past, is one of totally unexpected opportunities. Hans J. Eysenck writes a masterful historical overview of psychology and sees the future as an extrapolation of the past.

In the final section, “Mind sciences in the 21st century,” Robert Solso reviews the other essays and offers his views on current trends and new directions. He emphasizes the continuing importance of consciousness, the relationships between neuroimaging data and direct observations of behaviour, and the impact of scientific developments in other non-biological areas of science. He states that there has been a paradigm shift in the basic concept of the scientific method in the 20th century and that this will influence the whole direction of science in the next.

I found this book often challenged my conceptualizing powers; however, it was indeed a fascinating read. In fact, upon second reading I discovered many insights that I had missed the first time.

Handbook of Behavioral State Control

Handbook of Behavioral State Control: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms

Lydic R, Baghdoyan HA, editors

Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press LLC; 1999. 700 pp. with index

ISBN 0-8493-3151-X (hard cover)

Although one may argue that any change in neuronal activity may ultimately lead to behavioural alterations, a closer relation between single cell function and behavioural consequences is needed. This relation is complex, and there are numerous and inter-related regulatory levels between cellular/molecular processes and behavioural outcome. It is therefore not surprising that there is a remarkable lack of exhaustive textbooks that explain cellular mechanisms underlying behavioural activity more globally. This book, edited by Lydic and Boghdoyan, both from Pennsylvania State University, partially fills this gap. It is a carefully planned handbook divided into 38 chapters organized in 8 sections, and written by 95 authors. The book’s major goal is to provide updated material on the cellular and molecular mechanisms generating diverse behavioural states. The authors do not explain cellular mechanisms of particular behaviours but rather provide information about the neural processes that regulate behavioural states, such as sleep, wakefulness, consciousness, arousal, etc. Different behavioural states, in turn, determine a subset of possible behavioural outcomes. The dominating theme of the book is sleep, wakefulness, arousal, and vigilance; this theme is compatible with the research interest and experience of the editors in the neurobiology of sleep mechanisms.

The handbook represents a working reference for numerous topics relating to physiological, psychological and pathophysiological states, including information on epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment of common state disorders. The chapters in the first section discuss mammalian circadian rhythms, structure and function of the suprachiasmatic nuclei, melatonin rhythm-generation systems, and genetic circadian clock mechanisms. The subsequent chapters of the second section describe daily alterations in the arousal state, REM sleep dreaming, NREM sleep mentation, and neurological disorders of sleep. Section 3 deals with the anatomical substrate, neurochemical coding, and functional organization of components of the ascending reticular activating system, which includes ascending cholinergic, monoaminergic, and glutamatergic pathways. Particular attention is paid to the mesopontine cholinergic system and its role in REM sleep, wakefulness and cortical activation, and the noradrenergic and serotonergic pathways and their role in sleep, wakefulness, regulation of motor output and sensory information processing. The same systems are further discussed in more detail in the next section. Successive chapters deal with intrinsic membrane properties, synaptic activity, membrane current characteristics and excitability of cholinergic, noradrenergic, and serotonergic neurons. Particular attention is focused on the state-dependent cellular oscillations in the corticothalamic system and on the rhythmic oscillations in the hippocampal formation.

Mechanisms of behavioural state control may be altered by centrally active drugs. Several chapters in the section entitled “Molecules modulating mental state” discuss this issue. Neuronal and neurochemical mediation of addictive behaviour, and alterations in behavioural state caused by benzodiazepines, barbiturates, ethanol, caffeine, nicotine, marijuana, and serotonin antagonists are discussed.

The following 2 sections of the handbook review the current knowledge regarding state-dependent processing in somatosensory pathways and the role of the rostral ventromedial medulla in regulating ascending sensory transmission. Several chapters of the last 2 sections of the handbook deal with pathophysiological states. There is a particular emphasis on pain sensation, anesthesia, pharmacological and surgical treatment of pain, and immunological alterations in the arousal state. The topics cover cytokines in sleep regulation, immune effects on neurotransmission, and finally, body temperature, fever and microbial modulations of arousal.

Although the textbook covers vast areas of behavioural neuroscience, there are several important areas that are not represented. Results of the vast research concerning emotional states, such as anxiety or fear, and relevant regulatory functions of the limbic structures are not included. Also, psychopathological states of panic, depression, or euphoria are not described, except in parts of one chapter about addictive behaviour and neural mechanisms of reward. This topical selection was probably necessary to keep the textbook at the manageable size.

The textbook is well illustrated and contains overall 3500 references, more than 90 references per chapter. The book may serve as an excellent resource for advanced undergraduate and graduate students, postdoctoral fellows and biomedical researchers working with animal models of neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. It will also be highly useful for medical residents, lecturers in neuroscience courses, and other professionals interested in problems of behavioural neuroscience and general neural principles governing animal and human behaviour.

The Neuron: Cell and Molecular Biology

The Neuron: Cell and Molecular Biology, 2nd edition

Levitan IB, Kaczmarek LK

New York: Oxford University Press; 1997. 543 pp with index

ISBN 0-19-510021-2 (paper)

ISBN 0-19-510020-4 (cloth)

This book was first published in 1990, when it was received with a great deal of enthusiasm. The preface to the current edition is dated the summer of 1996 and the copyright date is 1997. In the field of neuroscience, where knowledge is growing exponentially over time, it is important to keep this perspective when reviewing a book.

The book covers all the major fields of learning within the neurosciences, and in a short text that can only afford space for the essentials, it succeeds beautifully, providing knowledge that both experts and novices can benefit from. The sequence by which the information is presented to the reader is logical and incremental. Thus, the reader learns first the electrical properties of neurons. This section allows the authors to present current knowledge regarding ion channels, membrane currents and action potentials. The book then moves onto the basics of cell-to-cell communication, describing synaptic function and how neurotransmitters interact with receptors, leading to both direct and indirect transfer of cellular information. The important concept of neuromodulation is well described in Chapter 12. With this knowledge base, the reader is then invited to tackle the rivetting section on Behaviour and Plasticity, where the building blocks reviewed earlier are used to describe how neurons grow and differentiate, how axons find their targets, and how learning occurs and memories form.

The format of each chapter is ideally suited for easy, enjoyable and almost effortless learning. A section starts with an introductory statement that positions the chapters in that section within the context of what has preceded and what will follow. Each chapter is then introduced, sometimes with a specific example, and other times with a general contextual description. Each chapter is nicely laid out, with many figures that not only illustrate concepts presented in the text, but rapidly become a strong distinguishing feature of this textbook’s high quality. The text emphasizes the important core messages of the chapter, and these are finally driven home by a summary section. At the end of the book, a bibliography section gives a list of recommended readings for each chapter, allowing the reader to return to source materials or to push knowledge of a particular area more deeply.

This is a wonderful book. It is alternately a textbook to be read cover-to-cover by graduate and undergraduate students of neuroscience; a reference text for those who are more advanced but need to refresh their memories about certain aspects of neuroscience; and a source of easily digestible new knowledge for those who need to learn about the advances in this field. Perhaps a reflection of how fast the field is moving, the book already appears ready for another edition! Programmed cell death, for instance, now a very competitive field of research work and new knowledge in the neurosciences, occupies slightly more than 1 page of text. Thus, an opportunity is sadly missed to inform the reader about not only the enormous influence this new field of understanding is having on current neuroscientific thinking, but also its relevance to neurodegenerative disease. There is, however, an excellent section on the neurotrophins, their actions, and the receptors they work through.

The book has some interesting peculiarities. I could not find anything at all about the authors from the book itself. They are, of course, known to us through their own extensive publications and eminent work, particularly on calcium and potassium channels. It would have been helpful to have an “About the Authors” section. This is especially true since the authors are experts in neurophysiology, and the general neurophysiological bias of the book is explained in the preface to the first edition, where the authors state that the text reflects their own training, research interests and biases. Perhaps for the next edition, which I would hope is imminent, the authors could invite the collaboration of a molecular neuroscientist who can round out the book with her or his own biases and interests.

The copy editing is no better or worse in this book than in any text that depends on the inadequate skills of computerized text management. For example, in the preface to the first edition, “form” is found where “from” was needed, and since that text dates from October 1990, it is a surprise that the mistake was not caught in this edition (or was it left there intentionally for authenticity purposes?). Another minor error is found on page 343, line 7, where the word “to” is missing. Finally, despite my admiration for the judicious and appropriate use of figures in this text, not all of the figures are helpful. For example, Figure 16-3 is spread over 2 pages, yet does not add much to the text. In addition, the word TOP is introduced in the legend to that figure, but does not show up in the figure itself and is defined in the text only 2 pages later.

In summary, this is a superbly written and well-illustrated text covering all the major aspects of neuroscientific knowledge, albeit with an understandable emphasis on neurophysiology. Regardless of the state of knowledge or the specific expertise of the reader, every neuroscientist should keep a copy handy.

Neuropsychological Assessment of Neuropsychiatric Disorders

Neuropsychological Assessment of Neuropsychiatric Disorders, 2nd edition

Igor Grant, Kenneth M. Adams, editors

New York: Oxford University Press; 1996. 654 pp. with index

ISBN 0-19-509073-X

The remarkable increase in the number of textbooks in neuropsychology is a reflection of the growing importance of the discipline, both in science and in applied health care. In this large field of contenders for readership, this volume is a welcome contribution to the literature. The well-written and comprehensive first edition has been extensively revised and now includes such timely topics as the psycho-social consequences of neuropsychological impairment. The editors, Igor Grant and Kenneth Adams, both highly thought-of opinion leaders in their respective fields of neuropsychiatry and neuropsychology, have pooled their areas of expertise to ensure that this text is a comprehensive as well as a scholarly summary of the current knowledge. The contributing authors are a refreshing mix of well-known names and more junior academics, a combination explicitly acknowledged as an attempt to “keep the treatment of topics fresh.”

The volume is organized into sections. Section 1 reviews methods of comprehensive neuropsychological assessment. The lead-off chapter discusses the Halstead Reitan Battery in a comprehensive but slightly cumbersome way. While useful, the material on the historical context could be reduced. The next chapter, on the analytical approach to neuropsychological assessment, provides conceptual background to theory-based clinical decision trees, while the Boston process and the Iowa-Benton school provide a very practically oriented review of these approaches to neuropsychological assessment. Computers in memory adds an interesting, frequently neglected component to this review. The chapter on cognitive screening methods rounds out the first section and provides a much-needed review of this area, but could have taken a slightly more practical angle, rather than concentrating extensively on conceptual considerations.

The second section, on neuropsychiatric disorders, constitutes the bulk of the book. The reader is led through all major areas of this cluster of disorders, starting with the important issues of demographic influences on test performance to the neuropsychology of dementia and to drug abuse and schizophrenia. While all of these chapters provide important background information, they tend to overlap thematicalry. In particular, the overview of dementia

includes appropriately significant background on various dementing disorders in the context of memory dysfunction, which is again reviewed thematically in the chapters on Huntington’s and Parkinson’s disease. Interestingly, while these diseases, along with epilepsy, Tourette’s syndrome and hypoxia, are given separate chapters, the disease accounting for more than 50% of all dementia cases — Alzheimer’s disease — did not did rate a separate chapter. An important contribution is made by the chapter on the neuropsychology of memory dysfunction, which provides the reader with a careful review of memory systems and the often-confusing taxonomy in this context. The third section, on the psychosocial consequences of neuropsychological impairment, introduces an important and very timely topic; namely, the noncognitive issues in traumatic brain injury, including the controversial issue of malingering. The book deserves praise for tackling the difficult topic of quality of life, both in the context of head injury and of systemic illness. Both chapters raise important and often-neglected issues; they will sensitize the reader to the significance of these topics. This important volume will serve both advanced students and clinicians alike for many years to come.